Thursday, July 13, 2023
Seven Surprising Jewish Inventions of the 19th Century
Seven Surprising Jewish Inventions of the 19th
Century
By Ken Spiro
The Jewish drive to innovate is as
old as the Jewish people itself. It
started with Abraham, 3,700 years ago, when he introduced humanity to arguably the
most transformative idea in history-one God and it continues until today. We see it in Jewish Noble Prize winners who
account for 22% of the total since 1901 despite being only .2% of the world’s
population and we see it in the “Start-Up Nation” – Israel, the most innovative
country per capita in the world. It has
always been there, but for many centuries it was much more difficult to see. Exile,
persecution, and discrimination suppressed the innovative spirit of the Jewish
people for centuries, but it never disappeared.
The emancipation of Jews in Europe began in the late
18th century with the passage of laws granting Jews civil rights and legal
equality with other citizens. These laws granted Jews the right to practice
their religion, to work in most professions, and to own property. The process
of emancipation was gradual, and in some countries, such as Germany where
emancipation began after the Napoleonic wars in 1812, it was not completed
until the late 19th century. Jews were finally allowed to enter professions, study
in universities and engage in trades that had previously been closed to them.
This newfound freedom unleashed a wave of creative energy and entrepreneurial
spirit among Western European Jews, leading many of them to pursue ambitious projects
and inventions.
The 19th century saw a surge in
innovation and invention, with many world-changing ideas and technologies being
created. Germany was particularly well-represented in this field, producing
some of the era’s most influential inventors. While Germany is known for its
many great inventors, what is less well-known is the significant number of
German-Jewish inventors who made important contributions to the world. Here are
seven that you have probably never heard of.
One of the most influential
German-Jewish inventors of the 19th century was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
(1856-1894), the scientist who first proved the existence of electromagnetic
waves. His work laid the groundwork for the development of wireless
communication, and he is widely regarded as the father of modern radio. Hertz-the
unit of frequency for sound waves derives its name from him.
Karl Wilhelm Otto Lilienthal
(1848 –1896) was a German pioneer of aviation who became known as the
"flying man". Lilienthal began experimenting with gliders in 1891 and
was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with
gliders. He was also the first person to
control the flight path of a glider by changing the angle of the wings, using a
hip cradle and a tail rudder. He set a world record with a flight of 225 feet
in 1896. Lilienthal's legacy is still seen today in modern aviation. He
designed and built many different types of gliders, all of which were used in
the development of modern aircraft.
Siegfried Marcus was another influential German-Jewish inventor and is
credited with inventing the first automobile powered by an internal combustion
engine. His designs and prototypes were developed between 1864 and 1888. He was
the first to use a carburetor and the electric spark plug, and he developed a
four-stroke engine. He also patented several improvements to the internal
combustion engine, making it more efficient and reliable. His inventions had a
great influence on the development of the modern automobile.
Emile Berliner (1851 –1929) was a German-born American-Jewish engineer
and inventor who developed the first flat disc record, the gramophone record.
He is also credited as the inventor of the microphone. Berliner also developed
a system of sound-on-film recording that was the basis for the modern movie
sound system. He was awarded over 50 patents in his lifetime including the
rotary engine and a prototype helicopter.
Arthur Eichengrün (1867-1949) was a German-Jewish chemist and the
inventor of aspirin, the world’s most commonly used drug. He discovered the pain-relieving properties of
acetylsalicylic acid in 1897. He also created a
process for synthesizing the compound, which was later used in 1899 by the
Bayer Company to commercially mass-produce aspirin.
David Schwartz (1817–1892) was a
Hungarian-born German-Jewish engineer and inventor. He is most famous for his
invention of the steerable, rigid airship (dirigible) and the use of a rigid
metallic frame. His invention was an important step toward the development of
modern airships, and he is credited with being the first to construct and fly
an airship with a rigid frame.
Finally, there was Heinrich Gustav
Magnus (1802–1870), a German-Jewish chemist and physicist who made important
contributions to the field of magnetism. He is credited with discovering the
law of magnetism, and his work was instrumental in the development of the
electric motor and generator. His research had a major influence on the
development of electrical engineering.
There are many more than just these five, but the question is,
why are they so unknown? There are multiple reasons. Despite emancipation, many
German-Jewish scientists faced significant restrictions in 19th-century
Germany. They were denied membership in professional associations, barred from
teaching positions at universities and excluded from government laboratories. Several of them suffered from poor health and
died young before they could further develop, patent, or monetize their
inventions. With the Nazi rise to power in 1933, many were simply erased from
history.
Heinrich
Hertz died at age 36 from a surgical complication and was unable to benefit
commercially from his discovery. The man
who did that with the radio was Guglielmo
Marconi.
Otto
Lilienthal was killed in a glider crash at the age of 48, but the Wright
brothers, who made the first controlled flight of a powered aircraft in 1903
cited Lilienthal as a major source of inspiration.
The
Nazis removed Siegfried Marcus from German encyclopedias as the inventor of the
modern car and replaced with the names of Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz
who also played major roles in the development of the automobile.
Emile Berliner immigrated to the US
at age 19. Although he lost a patent battle over telephone technology to Thomas
Edison, he had a successful career as a researcher and entrepreneur.
The Nazis also made it impossible for
Arthur Eichengrün
to contest the claim of Felix Hoffman, another chemist who worked for Bayer,
that he had invented aspirin, Eichengrün
first wrote about being robbed of the
credit for his discovery in a letter he sent from the Theresienstadt concentration camp in 1944.
Today when we think of airships, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin comes to mind, but the idea originated with David Schwartz who dropped
dead of a heart attack at 44.
These five German-Jewish inventors are classic examples of the Jewish innovative spirit. They made important contributions to the world in the 19th century. Their inventions changed the way people communicated, traveled, and generated electricity, and their influence can still be felt today.
Jews and Booze-Jews and the Alcohol Business
Ken Spiro
The history of the Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is
one of great complexity and diversity. Jews have been present in this region
since the Middle Ages, and have had a large impact on the development of the
region’s economy, culture, and religious life. The earliest known presence of
Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth dates back to the year 966 when
Jews were granted religious and other freedoms by Duke Mieszko I. These
freedoms would continue to be extended and expanded throughout the Middle Ages.
During this time, Jews were able to live in relative peace and prosperity, and
the Jewish community in the region grew steadily. In the 14th century, Jews in
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were granted additional rights and
privileges by King Casimir III, including the right to own property and to
engage in trade. This period saw a large influx of Jewish immigrants, many of
whom were fleeing persecution in other parts of Europe. This influx of
immigrants led to a rise in the size and influence of the Jewish community in
the region. The 16th century was a period of great religious and social
upheaval in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this time, the Jewish
population was subject to increasing persecution and discrimination, culminating
in the Chmielnicki Uprising of 1648, in which Jews were massacred by Cossack
forces. Despite this, the Jewish community in the region managed to survive and continued to make an important contribution to the economy and culture of
the region. The 18th century saw a period of relative stability in the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Jews had become an important part of the
region’s economy and were granted additional rights and freedoms. This period
also saw the emergence of the Hasidic movement, which had a profound influence
on the region’s Jewish culture. The 19th century saw the emergence of a
powerful nationalist movement in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which led
to increased persecution of the Jewish population. In addition, the region was
subjected to a series of partitions by its neighboring empires, which further
disrupted the Jewish community. Despite this, many Jews managed to remain in
the region and continue to contribute to its economy and culture. The 20th
century brought further hardship to the Jews of the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. The region was overrun by Nazi forces during World
The history of Jews as middlemen in European civilization is a long and
complex one. Jews have had an important presence in Europe since ancient times,
and their unique role as middlemen has allowed them to occupy a unique space
in European society. For centuries, Jews have been the link between the East
and the West, providing goods, services, and knowledge to both sides of the
continent. In the Middle Ages, Jews were the primary financiers, merchants, and
traders between the two regions. This allowed for the exchange of goods, ideas,
and culture between the two regions. Jews were also the go-between in the
Renaissance, providing goods and services from the East and introducing new
technologies from the West. The Jews’ role as middlemen also allowed them to
become the primary financiers of the aristocracy in many European countries.
Jews provided loans to royalty and the wealthy, often taking advantage of their
advantageous positions and charging high-interest rates. This allowed them to
amass wealth and influence, although it also made them the target of religious
persecution and anti-Semitism. The Jews’ role as middlemen also allowed them
to become the primary financiers of science and technology in Europe. Jews were
often the only ones who had access to the latest scientific and technological
developments, which they then brought to Europe. This allowed them to become a
driving force in the industrial revolution, and their expertise in finance and
banking helped create the modern banking system. The role of Jews as middlemen
in Europe has been both beneficial and detrimental. On the one hand, they have
provided a critical link between the East and the West, allowing for the
exchange of goods, ideas, and culture. On the other hand, their privileged
positions have made them the targets of religious persecution and
anti-Semitism. Despite these difficulties, Jews have managed to remain an
important part of European society and culture, and their role as middlemen
continues to be an integral part of European civilization.
The economic role of Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was of great
importance to the overall economy of the region. Jews played a significant role
in the development of the economy of the Commonwealth, particularly in the
areas of trade, banking, and manufacturing. Jews were an integral part of the
economic life of the Commonwealth from the Middle Ages. Jews were among the
first to engage in international trade, particularly with the Hanseatic League.
Jews were also involved in the development of the banking system, which allowed
for a much more sophisticated and efficient system of credit. Jews were also
involved in the manufacturing industry, particularly in the area of textiles.
Jews were responsible for the importation of raw materials, as well as the
production of finished goods. This allowed for the development of a strong
manufacturing sector in the Commonwealth, which allowed for the growth of the
economy. In addition to the manufacturing and banking industries, Jews were
also involved in the retail sector. Jews established many shops and stores
throughout the Commonwealth, selling a wide variety of goods. These stores
allowed for the development of a strong consumer base, which was essential to
the growth of the economy.
Jewish innkeepers in Eastern Europe played an important role in the economic
and social life of their communities. As travelers, merchants, and tradespeople
moved through the region, these innkeepers were often the first people they
met. They provided a crucial service to travelers, providing places to stay and
often acting as a link between travelers and the local community. Innkeepers
had to be knowledgeable about the changing political and economic situation in
each country, so they could decide whether to accept or reject guests. This
could lead to dangerous situations, as they could be targeted by those seeking
to harm them or their guests. They had to be flexible and shrewd business
people, as they had to make quick decisions to ensure the safety of their
guests. Innkeepers often had to work long hours and provided services such as
cooking and cleaning. They had to be excellent hosts, providing a warm and
welcoming atmosphere to their guests. They had to be knowledgeable about their
local area and be able to provide advice about where to go and what to do. Innkeepers were also a vital source of information for Jewish communities. They
often provided news from other parts of the region and could give updates on
the political situation in different countries. They could also provide advice
on how to deal with local authorities or how to find safe passage for those
fleeing persecution. Jewish innkeepers in Eastern Europe were an essential
part of their communities. They provided a vital service to travelers and
helped the Jewish community to stay safe and informed. They may not have always
been popular, but they were a vital part of the social and economic life of the
region.
The
history of Jews in the alcohol business in Poland is a complex one that spans
centuries and has been shaped by the shifting tides of political and religious
forces. Jews have been involved in the production of alcohol in Poland since at
least the early 17th century. The earliest known Jewish distiller in Poland was
named Avram Ettinger, who began producing vodka in 1630. During the 18th
century, Jewish distillers began to gain prominence in the alcohol industry, as
the Polish government granted them the right to distill spirits. In the 19th
century, Jewish distillers began to expand their businesses, creating new
brands and styles of vodka. The 20th century brought with it a dramatic shift
in the alcohol industry in Poland. In 1938, the Nazi regime implemented a ban
on all Jewish businesses, including alcohol production. This ban remained in
place until 1945, after which some Jews were able to reestablish their
businesses. However, the Polish government soon implemented a number of
anti-alcohol measures, including high taxes and restrictions on production.
This caused many Jewish distillers to leave the alcohol business. By the 1990s,
the Polish alcohol industry had become largely privatized, and many Jews
returned to the alcohol industry. This time, however,
The history of Jews in the alcohol business in Poland is a long and complex
one. Jews have been involved in the production and sale of alcohol in Poland
for centuries, and their role in the industry has been both significant and
controversial. The first Jews to be involved in the alcohol industry in Poland
were likely Jews from Germany or the Austro-Hungarian Empire who moved to
Poland in the late 17th century and began to work as tavern owners, distillers,
and brewers. These early entrepreneurs were often subject to restrictions and
taxes imposed by local authorities, but nonetheless made the most of their
opportunities. Jews continued to be involved in the production and sale of
alcohol in Poland throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, and by the early 20th
century they had become major players in the industry. The Jewish population of
Poland was decimated during the Holocaust and with it the Jewish role in the
alcohol industry. After the war, Jews were largely excluded from the alcohol
industry, and the production and sale of alcohol came to be dominated by the
state. Despite this, a few Jews managed to remain in the alcohol industry in
Poland and slowly rebuilt their businesses, eventually becoming successful
entrepreneurs. Today, the Jewish role in the alcohol industry in Poland is
still significant, though much more subdued than it was before the Holocaust.
While there are still a few Jews running their own businesses, the majority of
the industry is now dominated by larger companies. Nonetheless, the
contribution of Jews to the Polish alcohol industry is still remembered and
respected.
The
history of Jews in the alcohol business in Poland is a long and complex one.
For centuries, Jews were among the most important producers and sellers of
alcohol in the country. In the late 1800s, Jews began to dominate the alcohol
business in Poland. They controlled the production, transportation, retail
sale, and importation of alcohol. Jews held a monopoly on the production of vodka,
and by the early 20th century, there were more than 200 distilleries in the
country owned by Jews. Jews also owned numerous pubs and taverns, and served as
wholesalers for alcohol distribution. This dominance of the alcohol business
meant that Jews played a major role in the Polish economy. However, Jews faced
significant obstacles in the alcohol business. In the late 1800s, anti-Jewish
laws were enacted that restricted the sale of alcohol to Jews. Jews were also
excluded from certain professions, such as distilling and brewing. Despite
these challenges, Jews continued to play a major role in the alcohol business
in Poland. In the 1930s and 1940s, the situation changed drastically. The Nazi
occupation of Poland in 1939 led to the mass murder of Jews. Many of the
Jewish-owned alcohol businesses were destroyed, and Jews were forced to flee
the country
The
history of Jews in the alcohol business in Poland dates back to the early 19th
century. Jews began to participate in the alcohol industry in Poland after the
partition of the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth in 1772. The Jews who had been
living in the area for centuries were suddenly subjected to the strict
regulations of the partitioning powers. Under the Prussian partition, Jews were
not allowed to own land or businesses but were able to work in the alcohol
industry as distillers and brewers. This allowed Jews to move into the alcohol
business and to become the main producers of spirits in Poland. In the late
19th century, the Polish economy began to improve, and Jews were able to move
into a variety of businesses, including the alcohol industry. Jewish-owned
distilleries and breweries flourished throughout the country, producing vodka,
beer, and other spirits. Jews also owned and operated many of the taverns in
Poland, and the Jewish-owned taverns became popular destinations for locals and
travelers alike. In the early 20th century, the Jews of Poland continued to
dominate the alcohol industry. In the 1920s, nearly half of all distilleries
and breweries in Poland were owned by Jews. Jews also held important positions
in the industry, such as distillers, brewers, and tavern keepers. Despite their
success, the Jews of Poland were still subject to discrimination and prejudice.
The rise of the Nazi Party in the 1930s led to increased persecution of the
Jews in Poland, which included restrictions on their businesses. Many Jews were
forced to give up their businesses or were deported. Despite the hardships, the
Jews of Poland continued to participate in the alcohol industry. After the war,
many Jews returned to their businesses and continued to produce quality
alcohol. To this day, the Jews of Poland continue to play an important role in
the country's alcohol industry.
The history of Jews and alcohol production during the Prohibition era in the
United States is an interesting one. During this period, Jews were an integral
part of the illegal alcohol industry. Despite the fact that it was illegal to
manufacture, transport, and sell alcohol, Jews still found ways to do so. It is
estimated that Jews comprised about 10% of the illegal alcohol industry during
prohibition, which was a significant portion considering their population in
the country at the time. Jews were involved in all aspects of the industry,
from distilling and brewing to smuggling, bootlegging, and retailing. In
addition to their roles as distillers, brewers, and retailers, Jews also
provided crucial financial support to the industry. Jewish financiers were
instrumental in providing the capital needed for bootleggers to purchase
equipment and supplies, as well as for transporting the alcohol across state
lines and overseas. The Prohibition era saw a significant increase in organized
crime, and Jews were heavily involved in this as well. Jewish gangsters such as
Arnold Rothstein, Meyer Lansky, and Benjamin “Bugsy” Siegel played a major role
in the illegal alcohol industry. These and other Jewish gangsters used their
influence to control the flow of illegal liquor, as well as to gain political
and financial power. The Prohibition era was a difficult time for many Jews,
and it led to increased anti-Semitism. But despite the challenges and dangers,
Jews were able to make a successful living in the illegal alcohol industry.
They provided much-needed financial support to the industry and helped to make
it a lucrative business. While the Prohibition era is now a distant memory, the
contributions of Jews to the illegal alcohol industry remain an important part
of its history.
The history of Jewish gangsters and alcohol production during the Prohibition
era in America is an interesting one. During the period from 1920 to 1933, the
US government passed a constitutional amendment that made the manufacture,
sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages illegal. This created a lucrative
criminal enterprise for organized crime, and some of the most famous and
powerful gangsters of the era were of Jewish descent. Alcohol had been a major
part of the American economy for centuries, so the passing of the Prohibition
Amendment was a major disruption. But as is often the case with disruption,
opportunity soon followed. Jewish gangsters in major cities like New York,
Chicago, and Philadelphia were quick to capitalize on the chance to make a
profit by illegally distilling and selling alcohol. They utilized the expertise
and contacts of their immigrant communities to create an underground network of
alcohol production and distribution. This network soon spread across the
country, providing drinkers with illegal liquor in a variety of forms, from
homemade moonshine to smuggled-in scotch. The Prohibition era also saw a rise
in Jewish gangsters with a deep interest in the production and sale of alcohol.
Men like Arnold Rothstein, Meyer Lansky, and Moe Dalitz had a hand in many of
the largest bootlegging operations of the day. They utilized their connections
to organized crime to create vast networks of illegal alcohol production and
distribution. Rothstein, for example, is credited with single-handedly creating
the modern underworld. He was known for his ruthless business practices and for
his close ties with some of the most powerful mobsters of the era. The
Prohibition era was an important part of Jewish gangster history, and it was a
period of great innovation. Jewish gangsters and bootleggers were able to
utilize their skills and contacts to create a vast illegal alcohol production
and distribution network. This network helped to keep the country supplied with
illegal alcohol during the Prohibition era, and it paved the way for some of the
most famous and powerful organized crime figures of the 20th century.
Sam
Bronfman was born in 1892 in Russia. He and his family immigrated to Canada in
1904, where he quickly established himself as a successful businessman. By the
1920s, he had become a millionaire, and he used his wealth to acquire a number
of businesses, establishing the Seagram Distilling Company as the cornerstone
of the Bronfman business empire. Seagram was one of the largest liquor
companies in the world, selling its products in more than 40 countries.
The
Bronfman family is a well-known Canadian family that made its fortune in
alcohol and banking. The family’s roots trace back to Yechiel Bronfman, a
Jewish immigrant from Russia who settled in Montreal in 1908. His sons, Sam and
Harry, founded the Distillers Corporation Limited in 1928 and grew it into one
of the world’s largest alcohol companies. They then acquired the Joseph E.
Seagram & Sons in 1928, making it the largest distiller in the world. The
Bronfman family is responsible for creating, distributing, and promoting many
of the world’s most popular alcoholic beverages, including Crown Royal, Chivas
Regal, and Seagram’s Seven Crown. The company’s success can be attributed to
the brothers’ innovative business practices, such as their focus on marketing,
brand building, and product diversification. The Bronfmans, however, are also
known for their involvement in the illegal (and sometimes violent) activities
of the alcohol trade during the Prohibition era. During this time, the Bronfmans
were accused of smuggling and bootlegging alcohol into the United States and
Canada. While the brothers were never convicted for these activities, their
involvement in the illegal alcohol trade is well documented.
Sunday, February 05, 2023
The Jewish Atomic Empire
The little-known story of the Jewish impact
on nuclear energy
By Ken Spiro
Unlike the ancient Greeks or
Romans, the Jewish people have never been into building physical empires. Demographically
they have always been one of the smallest peoples on the planet - stateless for
much of their history. Yet despite being tiny, stateless, and powerless, the
Jewish people have been remarkably impactful and transformative in so many ways. The true Jewish influence has always been
through ideas and innovation that have transformed the world.
This disproportionate impact
started with Abraham, the founding father of the Jewish people, 3,700 years ago
in what is today Iraq, when in a world full of idol worship, he chose to
reconnect humanity to the idea of one God and an absolute God-given standard of
morality. Ethical monotheism, as it is
often called, is certainly the first, most transformative and impactful of all
ideas that the Jews brought to the world, but it’s hardly the last. Since the time of Abraham onward, the Jewish
people have continued to leave their mark on the world in so many areas besides
just religion and morality.
A great, modern example of Jewish
innovation is in the entertainment industry.
In the early 20th century Jews were the driving force behind
the creation of the motion picture industry. MGM. Warner Brothers, Paramount,
Columbia Pictures, and 20th Century Fox were all founded by Jewish
immigrants from Eastern Europe-refugees from Czarist Russian persecution. (1)
Hollywood may be one of the only Jewish Empires in history, but there is
another modern example of a Jewish “empire,” less known, but certainly more
impactful: nuclear fission.
For better or for worse, nuclear Fission
(The process in nuclear physics in which the
nucleus of an atom splits into two nuclei thus enabling both nuclear energy and the atomic
bomb.) has been one of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time
unleashing immense power for both energy and destruction. The number of Jews
involved in splitting the atom in the 20th century is truly staggering.
The
term itself, “nuclear fission,” was coined in Germany in 1939 by a female physicist
named Lise Meitner, but being both a woman and Jewish (She fled to Sweden to
escape Nazi persecution and continued her research in Stockholm) she was denied
credit for her research which was given solely to her fellow German researcher,
Otto Hahn, who later received the Nobel prize for his work.
In the
first half of the 20th century, Germany was the world leader in
science and innovation and once the Nazis came to power in 1933, they directed much
of this German know-how toward their military-rocket technology and weapons of
mass destruction. It was precisely this
fear that Germany would be the first country to get a nuclear weapon that led
the Hungarian-Jewish physicist, Leo Szilard to convince the great Albert
Einstein, who was a pacifist, (both were refugees from Nazi persecution living
in the US) to co-write a letter to President Roosevelt urging him to start a nuclear
research program in the U.S. and beat the Germans to the A-bomb. This letter played a key role in convincing Roosevelt
to launch “The Manhattan Project, ” America’s program to build an atomic bomb.
(2)
The
number of Jewish involved in the project was astounding-probably close to 90% of
the scientist. Almost all of them were German, Hungarian, or Austrian scientist refugees from Nazi German persecution. The list included: J. Robert Oppenheimer-Project director and
nicknamed “The father of the atomic bomb,” Edward Teller, Leo Szilard, Otto Frisch,
Niels Bohr Felix Bloch, Hans Bethe, John von Neuman, Rudolf Peierls, Franz
Eugene Simon, Hans Halban, Joseph Rotblatt, Stanislav Ulam, Richard Feynman,
Eugene Wigner, and the list goes on. One
of the few prominent non-Jews involved in the project, Enrico Fermi, left Italy
to save his Jewish wife from fascist persecution. There is little doubt that
had the Nazis been more tolerant of Jews, Germany would have had an atomic bomb
first.
Chaim
Weizmann, himself a prominent chemist and Israel’s first president later wrote:
“Very
few people … have any notion of the role which Jews have played in modern
science, and particularly of their astounding share in the development of
nuclear physics. … I have heard Einstein speak of ninety percent. … I am
continuously struck by the utter disproportion of the Jewish contribution.” (3)
The is no question that these scientists realized the
profound implications of creating such a weapon of mass destruction. As Oppenheimer witnessed the first test
detonation of an atomic bomb on July 16th, 1945, he quoted from
Hindu Bhagavad Gita “Now I become death, the destroyer of all worlds,” yet he
never expressed any regret about the Manhattan Project. He like many others in the scientific and
military communities recognized the urgency of getting the bomb before
America’s enemies and realized that the war would have dragged on for far
longer with far greater American casualties had the US military been forced to
conquer Japan with conventional ground forces.
In his farewell speech to Los Alamos scientists in
November 1945, Oppenheimer summarized the necessity of the US creating the A-bomb:
“…all over the world men would be
particularly ripe and open for dealing with this problem because of the
immediacy of the evils of war, because of the universal cry from everyone that
one could not go through this thing again, even a war without atomic bombs. And
there was finally, and I think rightly, the feeling that there was probably no
place in the world where the development of atomic weapons would have a better
chance of leading to a reasonable solution, and a smaller chance of leading to
disaster, than within the United States.”
The
Jewish people’s relationship with the atom didn’t end with the Manhattan
project:
-David
Lilienthal was appointed the first chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
in 1946
-Edward Teller and Stanislav Ulam created the
hydrogen bomb in 1952
-Admiral
Hyman Rickover was the architect of the Polaris Nuclear Submarine fleet in
1954.
The
innovative and transformative impact of the Jewish people extends well beyond
the entertainment industry and the atom bomb.
The Jewish people are just .2% of the world’s population yet Jews have
won 22% of all Nobel prizes since 1901 (4) and little Israel, the Jewish State,
has the largest number of startups per capita in the world. This disproportionate impact has been noticed
by many, including British historian Paul Johnson:
“For the Jewish impact
on humanity has been protean. In
antiquity, they were the great innovators in religion and morals. In the Dark Ages and early medieval Europe, they were still an advanced people transmitting scarce knowledge and technology…Breaking
out of the ghettos, they once more transformed human thinking, this time in the
secular sphere. Much of
the mental furniture of the modern world to is of Jewish fabrication.” (5)
Jews do
not have a monopoly on innovation and not all Jewish “contributions” have been
positive, but given how small and how persecuted the Jewish people have been
throughout history, it begs the question why?
American sociologist, Ernest van den Haag asked the same question:
“The Jews have invented more ideas, have made the world more
intelligible, for a longer span and for more people than any other group. They have done this indirectly, always
unintentionally, and certainly not in concert, but never less
comprehensibly...In a world where Jews are only a tiny percentage of the
population, what is the secret of the disproportionate importance the Jews have
had in the history of Western culture?”
From Abraham onward, Jews have consistently manifested
certain personality traits that have driven them to question and look at the
world in a different way. They seem to possess traits in their collective “spiritual
DNA” that have always driven them to challenge excepted norms, think outside
the box, and create and innovate. As strange
as this may sound, it seems to be the most logical explanation especially since
so many of the most innovative Jews, including most of the scientists who
worked on The Manhattan Project, had little or no Jewish education and no substantial
connection to Judaism. Most were Jews by
birth and nothing more yet “thou shalt innovate” was still deep in their core.
Perhaps, Rabbi, Lord Jonathan Sacks said it the best:
“To be Jewish, to be a child of Abraham is to have
the courage to be different, to challenge the idols of the age, whatever the
idols and whichever the age.” (7)
(1)
For more on this topic see: An Empire of Their Own – How the Jews Invented
Hollywood – Neal Gabler
(2)
In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old
friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I
signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made;
but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them.” Clark,
Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times. New York: Avon Books
(3)
Tablet Magazine, November 9, 2022. Imagining a Jewish Atom
Bomb, Or Rabinowitz & Yehonaton Abramson
(4)
http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html
(5)
-Paul Johnson, A
History of the Jews
(6)
Ernest van den Haag, The
Jewish Mystique
(7) Covenant and Conversation-The Heroism of Ordinary Life, 5768
Sunday, January 22, 2023
The Four Questions of Hannukah
Ken Spiro – December 2022
-Is there a reason why Hanukkah and Christmas happen at the same time of the year?
Growing up as a young Jewish kid in New York with a very limited after-school, Hebrew school education, I came up with my own theory as to why Hannukah and Christmas always fall out aroundthe same time in December. By the age of 9, I figured out that smart rabbis must have thought that if Jewish kids saw Christian kids getting presents and they didn’t get presents too, they might not stay Jewish. An interesting theory, even if it was far from the truth.
The reality is very different. As for the date of the holiday, the Talmud explicitly states:
“The Sages taught: On the twenty-fifth of Kislev, the days of Hanukkah are eight.” (1)
The Book of the Maccabees, which tells the story of Hannukah, also mentions the exact same date:
“Early in the morning of the 25th day of the ninth
month which is the month of Kislev...they [the priests] rose and offered
sacrifices, as the law directs, on the new alter of burnt offerings which they
had built...it was dedicated with songs and harps and lutes and cymbals...So
they celebrated the dedication of the alter for eight days...” (2)
So Hannukah REALLY did happen in the month of Kislev,
which always falls out around December and which are, in the northern
hemisphere, the shortest days of the year.
The question is, why is Christmas also in December?
The connection of Christmas (the traditional day of
Jesus’s birth) to the same time of year happened sometime in the 4th
century C.E. when the early church fathers fixed the date as December 25th,
but there is no reference to this date in the Christian Bible and there is much
historical speculation as to why this date was chosen.
One possible
explanation is that much of Christian ritual has its origins in the paganism of
the Roman Empire. Late December, which
the Romans also recognized as the Winter Solstice was traditionally a time of
several major pagan holidays-Saturnalia-Celebrating Saturn, the god of
agriculture and also that of Sol Invictus/Helios-the sun god. It could well be that the early church
fathers deliberately placed Jesus’s birthday in December to de-paganize the
season and give it a Christian ” flavor “and focus.
2-Why isn’t the Book of the Maccabee’s in the Hebrew
Bible?
There are actually 8 separate works that have the
title Book of the Maccabees. By far, the best-known books are Maccabees 1
and 2. Maccabees 1 was written in Hebrew by a royal chronicler of the Hasmonean
Dynasty (The Hasmonean Dynasty is the family of the Maccabees) sometime in the
late 2nd century BCE and Maccabees 2 was probably written in Greek by a Jew
living in Egypt, also around the same time.
We do not have the original Hebrew version of Maccabees 1 nor the original,
unabridged version of Maccabees 2.
Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches
consider the Books of the Maccabees to be canonical (included in the list of sacred books officially accepted as
genuine.) and are included in their versions of the Bible. The question is why doesn’t Judaism consider
these books to be holy?
Jewish tradition teaches that the different books that
comprise the Tanach-the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible,
designated as holy - were compiled by the Men of the Great Assembly (the
120 spiritual leaders who led the Jewish people approximately 2,500 years ago
during the Babylonian Exile). Two criteria were used by these great sages to
decide which books to include in the Bible:
1-The book had to be authored by a prophet
2-The book had to contain a message relevant for all
time.
All the books of the Maccabees were written centuries
after the completion of the Hebrew Bible and none of the authors of any of these
books meet the above criteria. While the books of the Maccabees are a
tremendous source of information and even inspiration, they are not considered
by Judaism to be holy.
3-What happened to the Maccabees?
The story of the Maccabees is not only one of great
heroism and sacrifice but also one of corruption and tragedy. The five sons of Matisyahu (Mattathias) led a
struggle against the Greeks that lasted for 25 years. During this protracted conflict,
four of the five brothers either died in battle or were murdered.
The sole surviving brother, Simon, finally gained
independence from the Greeks and established a dynasty, known as the Hasmonean
Dynasty that would last for 103 years. For about a century Israel had independence
and Simon’s descendants assumed the roles of high priests and rulers of Israel.
As descendants of Moses’s brother,
Aaron, they could lay claim to the priesthood, but they had no right to
kingship as that position could only be claimed by a descendant of King David.
Tragically, later Maccabean rulers not only became
corrupted by their power but ended up persecuting the rabbinic leadership that
their ancestors had sacrificed their lives to preserve. Internal power
struggles within the family eventually degenerated into civil war which opened
the door to the Roman conquest of Israel
in 63BCE and ultimately the end of the Hasmonean in 37BCE when the Romans made
Herod the Great the king of Israel.
Coming from non-Jewish ancestry, Herod had even less
claim to kingship than the Maccabees. To compensate for his lack of legitimacy
Herod married the last surviving Maccabean female, Miriam. Obsessively
paranoid, jealous, and impulsive, the historian Josephus writes that Herod
eventually had her executed. He also put to death the two children that she
bore him as well as Miriam’s brother, the high priest, Aristobulus. And so, the
Maccabees ceased to exist. (3)
The Talmudic account of the end of the Hasmonaeans differs
in that it doesn’t mention Herod’s marriage to Miriam or her murder, but rather
that the last Maccabean female committed suicide rather than marrying Herod. (4) Regardless
of which version you choose to follow the family of the Maccabees came to a
tragic end over 2,000 years ago. The
Talmud concludes:
“Whoever
says that he is from the household of the Hasmoneans is surely a slave.” (5)
4-Why do we focus on the small miracle of the
oil? Wasn’t the military victory a far greater
miracle?
There is only one very short reference to
Hannukah in the Talmud:
“When the Greeks entered the Sanctuary, they defiled
all the oils that were in the Sanctuary by touching them. And when the
Hasmonean monarchy overcame them and emerged victorious over them, they
searched and found only one cruse of oil that was placed with the seal of the
High Priest, undisturbed by the Greeks. And there was sufficient oil there to
light the candelabrum for only one day. A miracle occurred and they lit the
candelabrum from it eight days. The next year the Sages instituted those days
and made them holidays with recitation of hallel and special
thanksgiving in prayer and blessings.”
The military victory of tiny Israel over superpower
Greece was certainly a more impressive achievement, but the symbolism of the
light of the menorah goes to the heart of the true victory:
Hannukah was
history’s first religious/ideological war-It was paganism’s battle against humanity’s
only monotheistic faith. The Greeks tried to destroy not Jews but Judaism.
Despite the beauty and sophistication of Greek culture,
their objective was to snuff out the light of Judaism. With that in mind, we now understand why it’s
truly fitting to focus on the miracle of the oil and not the military victory. The
military victory gained Israel brief independence, but that didn’t last
long. The Hannukah lights that continue
to shine brightly during the darkest time of the year truly represents the real
miracle-The survival of a faith and a people and the power of that people’s
faith to transform humanity and truly bring light to the world.
(1)
Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 21:b
(2)
I Maccabees
4:52-56
(3)
Josephus The Jewish Wars
(4)
Babylonian Talmud, Bava Batra 3:b
(5)
Babylonian Talmud, Kiddushin 70:b
Wednesday, September 14, 2022
Jews and Jamaica
Ken
Spiro-August 2022
When you think about Jamaica, what generally comes to mind is
reggae music, Bob Marley, beaches, palm trees, and maybe a few other things, but
not “Jews.” Surprisingly, the Jewish connection to Jamaica is very old and very
interesting. But before we can talk about Jews in Jamaica, we have to rewind our
story to Spain in 1492.
When you hear the date 1492, especially if you are from the U.S.,
what usually pops into your head is Christopher Columbus’s discovery of the New
World, but 1492 is also the year of one of the most traumatic events in Jewish
history-the expulsion from Spain. These
two events are actually very much connected.
July 31st, 1492 was the date set by Ferdinand and Isabella,
the king and queen of Spain, for all Jews to either convert to Christianity or
leave the country. On that date, the Jewish community of Spain, which had
flourished for 780 years, came to an end.
It is estimated that about half the Jews converted and stayed with many-
known as Conversos, Marranos or Bnei Anusim (Hebrew for
“the children who were forced”) - secretly and at great risks, continuing to
practice Judaism while an equal number left the country. Many went to Portugal where they were all
forcibly baptized five years later.
Immediately after the July 31st deadline, Columbus, who was
very possibly of Jewish ancestry, set sail on three ships with 88 crew (five of
whom were Jewish) in search of a westerly route to the Far East. Two months
later, on October 12th, 1492, he stumbled upon the Bahamas and
opened up the Americas for European colonization. Part of the reward that Columbus received for
his discovery was the Island of Jamaica.
Columbus’s accidental discovery of the Americas opened up a
massive new world for conquest, colonization, and fierce competition, primarily
between Catholic Spain, Portugal, and France and Protestant England and Holland
(which declared independence from Spain in 1581). It also opened up a new port
of refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jewish refugees of the Iberian Peninsula.
Today North America remains the largest Diaspora community in the
Jewish world, overwhelmingly populated by the descendants of Eastern European,
Ashkenazi Jews who fled by the millions from Czarist Russia between 1882 and 1914. Long before any Jews came to North America
they first settled in the West Indies and South America and Sephardic Jews
(“Sephardic” meaning from Spain) got there centuries before any Ashkenazim
showed up. The expulsion of 1492 and the
hardships that followed, for those who remained in Spain and Portugal, were the
primary reasons for the arrival of these first Sephardic Jews to the new world.
Back in Spain and Portugal, in the early 16th century,
thousands of Jewish forced converts to Christianity, now known as “new
Christians,” lived in constant terror of discovery at the hands of the Spanish
Inquisition. The Inquisition, which began in 1478, hunted down, arrested, and often
tortured and murdered tens of thousands of new Christians on suspicion of
secretly practicing their old faith and negatively influencing other new
Christians. It is estimated that more
than 30,000 people, many of them Jews, were executed by the Inquisition, which
did not officially end until 1834.
During the 16th century, fear of the Inquisition and a desire
for religious freedom led many of these crypto-Jews (forced converts who
continue to secretly cling to their faith) to flee Spain and Portugal for North
Africa, Holland, the Ottoman Empire, and the New World.
The Americas proved to be an attractive option for these crypto-Jewish refugees. Colonization
opened up many economic opportunities and there was much greater freedom since
these Spanish and Portuguese colonies were far away from the prying eyes of the
Inquisition. The oldest of these
communities were located in Brazil, Suriname, Curacao, St Domingo, Barbados, and
Jamaica.
Crypto-Jewish refugees from the Iberian Peninsula began to arrive
in Jamaica very soon after Columbus’s voyage, probably around 1494. They identified themselves as “Spanish” or “Portuguese”, not as “Jews” and settled in Kingston, Port Royal, Montego Bay, and other
locations throughout the Island. Columbus,
who controlled the island, did not allow the Inquisition into Jamaica so while
these crypto-Jewish refugees could still not openly- practice their faith it
was much easier and safer to practice in secret in Jamaica than back in Spain.
Economic opportunities were also abundant, especially in trading in sugar,
vanilla, tobacco, rum, and gold. The
community prospered and grew in relative freedom.
The situation for the Jews of Jamaica improved dramatically when England,
which was Spain’s arch-enemy, conquered the Island in 1655. The timing was perfect
as Oliver Cromwell, who ruled England at that time, had just allowed Jews back
into England 365 years after they were expelled by Edward I in 1290. The Jews
of Jamaica could finally openly practice their faith. After Cromwell, King Charles II confirmed the
citizenship and the rights of the Jews of both Great Britain and the colonies
including Jamaica.
The first synagogue in Jamaica was built in the latter half of the
17th century but was destroyed by an earthquake in 1692. (Synagogues in Jamaica and the West Indies
have a very unique feature: wooden floors
covered with sand. There is much
speculation as to the reason, ranging from a remembrance of the wandering in the
desert after the Exodus from Egypt to commemorating the attempts by crypto-Jews
back in Spain, living in fear of the inquisition, to muffle the sound of their
footsteps while they prayed in secret.) As the population began to grow so did
the number of synagogues scattered throughout the island.
The growing Jewish population in the 17th century
helped turn Jamaica into a thriving trading center in the Caribbean and also a major
launching point for raids against Spanish and Portuguese shipping. Jews such as
Abraham Blauvelt worked as privateers (legally sanctioned by the British
government to raid enemy ships as part of maritime warfare) while other Jews,
like Moses Cohen Enrique, were actual pirates. The exact extent of Jewish
pirate activity is much debated and likely exaggerated, but it certainly would
have been sweet revenge for the Jews of Jamaica whose ancestors were so abused
in the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. In the
Hunt’s Bay Cemetery (There are 22 known Jewish cemeteries in Jamaica) there are
seven gravestones with skulls and crossbones on them.
Ashkenazi Jews began arriving in Jamaica in the early 18th
century and by 1710 approximately 20% of the population of Kingston, the largest
city and today the capital, was Jewish.
The Jewish population reached its peak in the 1880s when 22,000 of the
island’s 580,000 residents were Jewish, including four of Kingston’s mayors.
Jamaica achieved independence from Britain in 1962 and its first
US ambassador, Neville Ashenheim, was Jewish. Political instability in the
1970s led to a mass exodus of Jews from the island and today only between 300
to 500 Jews remain. The only synagogue
still open (besides a Beit Chabad) is Shaare Shalom in Kingston, built in 1885.
One of the most fascinating connections between Jews and Jamaica
is probably Rastafarianism- a religion and social movement that appeared in
Jamaica in the 1930s that was much popularized by the Reggae musician Bob
Marley. While Jews had nothing to do
with the founding of Rastafarianism, there is no question that Judaism, the
Bible, Biblical themes and concepts - the Exodus narrative, etc. played a huge
role in shaping Rastafarianism. The music of Bob Marley is laced with Biblical
references and even direct quotes from the Bible so the next time you hear
Marley singing “Zion train is coming our way” you will know that it already made
a stop in Jamaica more than 500 years ago.
Monday, April 04, 2022
Six Jewish Ideas That Have Transformed the World
By Ken Spiro - April 2022
If you were to stop the average person on the street and ask him or
her what values are essential for the proper functioning of society, the vast
majority would probably mention these five:
-Peace
-Equality before the law
These values are so essential, basic, and obvious to us today that
we might assume that they are innate in human consciousness and have always
been part of society throughout human history.
You might be shocked to hear that in fact, these values were far from
obvious in the ancient world, even amongst the most highly developed,
sophisticated civilizations of antiquity.
To get a better understanding of how radically different were the
values of the ancient world, let’s hop in our time machine and travel back a
few thousand years. No matter where on
the planet we travel to in the ancient world, the contrast between then and now
is quite unbelievable.
-Value of life – The right to life is certainly the most
basic of all values, yet in the ancient world, it was shockingly absent. Human sacrifice was commonplace as were
blood sports like gladiators. The killing of newborn children (infanticide), was
universally practiced as means of both population control and sex selection.
Here is an excerpt from a
letter from a Roman citizen named Hilarion, written to his pregnant wife 2,000
years ago:
Know that I am still in
Alexandria...I ask and beg of you to take good care of our baby son, and as
soon as I receive payment, I will send it up to you. If you deliver a child
[before I get home], if it is a boy, keep it, if a girl discard it... (1)
-Peace – When we look at
how the world reacts with outrage at the Russian invasion of Ukraine, we
see how unacceptable war has become in modern consciousness, yet this was
hardly the case until relatively recently in history.
The ancient world was a place
of constant battles and conquest- a world where heroes were the warriors who
killed the most and greatest opponents and the only countries that weren’t
conquered were those that were strong enough to fight off the conquerors.
-Equality before the law – Equality before the law is the single
most fundamental principle of modern liberal democracy, yet for the vast
majority of history, this principle was far from fundamental to the political
systems of virtually every country and civilization on the planet. For most of
human history, in most of the world especially in the highly-developed
civilizations, a small group of privileged elites maintained a tight hold on virtually
all wealth and power. The average person
was poor and powerless and even the greatest minds of antiquity saw no reason
to change this. The great Roman
statesman, Cicero wrote:
What is called equality is really inequitable. For when equal honor
is given to the highest and lowest-for men of both types must exist in every
nation-this very “fairness” is most unfair, but this cannot happen in states
ruled by their best citizens. (2)
-Education – Today free education and universal literacy are
a given, but it was a very different story in the ancient world. Poverty and the struggle for survival forced
the majority of children to work from a young age, while deliberate government
policy and the desire to control the population led to mass illiteracy for most
of human history. While the rates of literacy have varied from place to place
and time to time, historians estimate that, on average, until about 500 years
ago, only about one in a thousand people could read!
-Social responsibility – Every developed country in the
world has social welfare infrastructure to help those in need and there are countless international organizations that fight poverty, and disease, help
countries in need and deal with natural disasters. Almost all of these programs and institutions
came into being in the last 200 years, before that time there was virtually
nothing. The philosopher Plutarch
clearly expresses the contempt that those who had in the ancient world had for
those who had nothing:
But if I gave you, you would proceed to beg all the more. It was the man who gave to you in the first
place who made you idle and so responsible for your disgraceful state. (3)
Even this cursory look at the ancient world shows, that compared to
our standards today, it was a pretty brutal and callous world-even in the most
advanced civilizations and our list of essentials values was basically absent. So where do these values come from?
The British historian, Paul Johnson, gives us the answer:
Certainly,
the world without the Jews would have been a radically different place...
To them, we owe the idea of equality before the law, both divine and human, of
the sanctity of life and the dignity of the human person, of the individual
conscience and so of personal redemption; of the collective conscience and so
of social responsibility; of peace as an abstract ideal and love as the
foundation of justice and many other items which constitute the basic moral
furniture of the human mind. Without the Jews, it might have been a much emptier
place. (4)
To
understand why the tiny Jewish people were able to have such a huge and
transformative impact on the values of the world, we have to look at one more
“idea.” All the previous values really come from this one “idea” and without it, we would have none of the others. That
“idea” is one God and one God-given, absolute standard of morality. This concept, often described as “Ethical
Monotheism,” has been history’s most transformative idea in terms of values and
morality.
In
the very beginning of the Book of Genesis, the Bile describes Humans as being
made “in the image of God” – with a unique, higher spiritual soul. In Hebrew the word is “Nishamah” and the
moral implications of every person possessing this unique, God-given spark,
this piece of the infinite are tremendous:
-If
every person has this higher soul, then every human life has infinite value, which
is why the Talmud states: “He who saves a life it is as if he saves an entire
universe.” (5)
-If
every human being has this divine spark within him or her, there is fundamental equality amongst all of us as the prophet Malachi states: “Have we
not all one father? Did not one God
create us all?” (6)
-If
we are made in God’s image, we have an obligation to emulate him... Deuteronomy
28:9 states: “…and you shall go in His ways.”
Just as God is kind and merciful, so too do we have an obligation to be
kind and merciful.
John
Adams, one of the Founding Fathers of America and the second president, summed
it up beautifully when he wrote:
“... I will
insist that the Hebrews have done more to civilize men than any other
nation. If I were an atheist and
believed in blind eternal fate, I should still believe that fate had ordained
the Jews to be the most essential instrument for civilizing the nations. If I
were an atheist of another sect… I should still believe that chance had ordered
the Jews to preserve and propagate for all mankind the doctrine of a supreme,
intelligent, wise almighty sovereign of the universe, which I believe to be the
great essential principle of all morality, and consequently of all
civilization… They have given religion to three-quarters of the globe and have
influenced the affairs of mankind more, and more happily than any other nation,
ancient or modern. (7)
The explanation as
to how a tiny, exiled, persecuted and powerless people was able to shape the
collective conscience of humanity is the topic for another discussion, but
there is no question that ethical monotheism, first brought to the world by
Abraham 3,700 years ago, has transformed the world.
The Jews were the first people to break out of this circle, to find a new way of thinking and experiencing, a new way of understanding and feeling the world, so much so that it may be said with some justice that theirs is the only new idea that human beings have ever had. But their worldview has become such a part of us that at this point it might as well have been written into our cells as a genetic code. (7)
(1) Stager, Lawrence E. “Eroticism and Infanticide at Ashkelon,” Biblical
Archaeology Review, July/August 1991
(2) Cicero, Laws, XIII,35.
(3) Plutarch, Morals 235A
(4) Paul Johnson- A History of the Jews
(5) Jerusalem
Talmud, Sanhedrin 4:22
(6) Malachi,
2:10
(7) Thomas Cahill, The Gift of the Jews, 1998)
(7) Joh Adams-Letter to F.A, Van der Kemp, 1808
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